Every major idea, document, compromise, and concept from Unit 1 — organized visually so you can review the whole unit in one sitting.
Exam weight: 15–22% of the AP Government exam
The big question: Why is the U.S. government designed the way it is — and does that design actually protect liberty?
Key philosophical roots: John Locke (natural rights, social contract), Montesquieu (separation of powers), Rousseau (popular sovereignty). These ideas flowed directly into the Declaration and Constitution.
Maximum direct citizen involvement. Referendums, town halls, protests, initiative petitions. Values broad participation by ordinary people — not just elites.
Group-based participation. Interest groups compete to influence policy — no single group dominates. Madison's vision in Federalist No. 10. The system's diversity is a feature, not a bug.
Educated/wealthy elites make major decisions. Electoral College and Senate (originally appointed) reflect this design. Values stability and expertise over direct participation.
| Feature | Articles (1781) | Constitution (1787) |
|---|---|---|
| Taxing power | None — had to request money from states | Congress can levy taxes directly |
| Executive branch | None | President with executive power |
| Federal courts | None | Supreme Court + lower courts |
| Interstate commerce | States could block or tax each other | Congress regulates interstate commerce |
| Army | Could request troops from states — couldn't compel | Congress funds standing army; President commands |
| Amendments | Required unanimous consent of all 13 states | 2/3 propose + 3/4 states to ratify |
| Representation | One vote per state regardless of size | House by population; Senate equal (2 per state) |
Why did it fail? Shays' Rebellion (1786) — farmers in debt revolted; the national government couldn't respond. Showed the government was too weak to function.
Problem: Big states (Virginia Plan) wanted representation by population. Small states (New Jersey Plan) wanted equal representation.
Solution: Bicameral Congress — House based on population; Senate equal (2 per state).
Problem: Slave states wanted enslaved people counted for representation; Northern states objected.
Solution: 3/5 of the enslaved population counted for House seats and taxes. Boosted Southern political power.
Congress could regulate interstate commerce (good for North), but could not ban the slave trade until 1808 (good for South). Import taxes on enslaved people limited to $10.
Problem: Direct election vs. congressional selection of president.
Solution: State electors chosen by each state. Number = congressional delegation. Balanced popular and elite democracy.
| Federalists | Anti-Federalists | |
|---|---|---|
| Key figures | Hamilton, Madison, Jay | Patrick Henry, George Mason, Robert Yates |
| Key text | Federalist Papers (85 essays) | Brutus No. 1, Letters from the Federal Farmer |
| Central argument | Strong central government needed; large republic controls factions | Large republic destroys liberty; states must remain sovereign |
| On rights | Structure protects rights better than lists | Demanded a written Bill of Rights |
| Outcome | Won ratification debate | Won the Bill of Rights (1791) |
Factions are inevitable but a large republic controls them. Diversity of interests prevents any one group from dominating. Defend pluralist democracy.
"Ambition must counteract ambition." Separation of powers + checks and balances protect liberty through structural design, not just good people. Defend separation of powers.
"Energy in the executive" requires one president, not a committee. Unity = decisiveness + accountability. Defend a strong unitary executive.
Judiciary is "least dangerous branch" — no sword or purse. Lifetime tenure = independence. Implies judicial review. Defend an independent judiciary.
A large republic CANNOT preserve liberty — only small, direct republics can. Necessary & Proper and Supremacy Clauses will destroy state governments. Opposes the Constitution.